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Sources:
“Official History” Bharat Rakshak, June 9 2011. Accessed 21/05/24. https://web.archive.org/web/201106090....
Higgins, David R. M48 Patton vs Centurion: Indo-Pakistani War 1965 (United Kingdom: Osprey Publishing Ltd., 2016).
Leonard, Thomas M. Encyclopedia of the Developing World “United States: Taylor & Francis Group, 2006).
Roy, A. C. The Second Kashmir War as Seen from Different Angles (India: Lake Publishers, 1969).
Roy, Haimanti. The Partition of India (United Kingdom: Oxford University Press, 2018).
Verma, Shiv Kunal. 1965: A Western Sunrise : India's War with Pakistan (India: Aleph, 2021).
Armchair Team Credits:
https://docs.google.com/document/d/1s...
(use code GOA50 for 50% off your first month) Exclusive Invasion of Goa video on Armchair History TV: https://armchairhistory.tv/supporters...
Merchandise available at https://armchairhistory.tv/collection...
Android App: https://play.google.com/store/apps/de...
IOS App: https://apps.apple.com/us/app/armchai...
Armchair Historian Video Game: https://store.steampowered.com/app/16...
Support us on Patreon: / armchairhistorian
Discord: / discord
Twitter: / armchairhist
Sources:
“Official History” Bharat Rakshak, June 9 2011. Accessed 21/05/24. https://web.archive.org/web/201106090....
Higgins, David R. M48 Patton vs Centurion: Indo-Pakistani War 1965 (United Kingdom: Osprey Publishing Ltd., 2016).
Leonard, Thomas M. Encyclopedia of the Developing World “United States: Taylor & Francis Group, 2006).
Roy, A. C. The Second Kashmir War as Seen from Different Angles (India: Lake Publishers, 1969).
Roy, Haimanti. The Partition of India (United Kingdom: Oxford University Press, 2018).
Verma, Shiv Kunal. 1965: A Western Sunrise : India's War with Pakistan (India: Aleph, 2021).
Armchair Team Credits:
https://docs.google.com/document/d/1s...
Category
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LearningTranscript
00:00You can watch this video without any ads or sponsorships and an exclusive companion episode
00:06about the Indian invasion of Goa by subscribing to our platform, Armchair History TV.
00:12Go to the link in the description below to join today.
00:15In 1947, Britain's 200-year rule over the Indian subcontinent finally came to an end.
00:23The former British Raj was divided into two separate nations.
00:29India and Pakistan.
00:32This partition was driven by religious and political differences,
00:36with Pakistan envisioned as a homeland for Muslims,
00:40while India retained a secular government with a Hindu majority.
00:45A major issue with the partition was the arbitrary drawing of the borders,
00:51which often ignored local demographics and historical ties.
00:55This resulted in one of the largest mass migrations in history,
01:00with millions of Hindus and Sikhs moving to India and millions of Muslims moving to Pakistan.
01:08The transition was ill-prepared, rushed, and far from peaceful,
01:12as widespread violence led to the deaths of over a million people.
01:17The staggering loss of life caused by this uprooting caused a deep-seated animosity to fester between the two young nations.
01:27This partition also led to a geopolitical crisis,
01:31as the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir became a significant point of contention.
01:37Despite its majority Muslim population,
01:40the Hindu Maharaja of Kashmir, Hari Singh, chose to accede to India,
01:46a decision that sparked immediate conflict.
01:49Pakistan, which saw Kashmir as a natural extension of its territory due to the demographic majority,
01:56responded with military intervention.
01:59This led to the First Kashmir War from 1947 to 1948,
02:05a bloody conflict that resulted in a UN-mediated ceasefire in 1949.
02:12The ceasefire established the Line of Control,
02:15effectively dividing Kashmir into areas administered by India and Pakistan.
02:21However, this did not resolve the underlying dispute,
02:25as both nations continued to lay claim to the entire region.
02:29The United Nations called for a plebiscite to allow the people of Jammu and Kashmir to decide their own future,
02:37but this was never implemented.
02:41The unresolved status of Kashmir meant that India and Pakistan's bad blood
02:47continued to simmer for years after the war.
02:51By the mid-1960s, both nations were also under immense political pressure.
02:56In Pakistan, internal instability left President Ayyub Khan,
03:01who had come to power through a military coup, facing dissent and regional tensions.
03:08Seeking to consolidate his power and unite the country under a common cause,
03:13he focused national attention on the Kashmir dispute.
03:17For India, Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri aimed to assert the nation's sovereignty
03:22and respond firmly to any threats, especially in light of the recent Chinese invasion in 1962,
03:30which had left the country on high alert.
03:33The international situation further complicated things,
03:37as the Cold War saw both India and Pakistan seeking support from global superpowers.
03:43Pakistan was allied with the United States,
03:46and received military aid through agreements like CETO and CENTO.
03:50Meanwhile, India, after its war with China,
03:54leaned toward the Soviet Union for military support.
03:58These alliances meant that the Kashmir issue was no longer a local conflict,
04:03but a new flashpoint in the Cold War,
04:05with both superpowers closely monitoring developments in South Asia.
04:10Tensions finally reached a breaking point in August of 1965,
04:16when Pakistan launched Operation Gibraltar.
04:19This plan was to infiltrate Jammu and Kashmir,
04:22with trained guerrillas to incite an insurgency against Indian rule.
04:27Pakistan's leadership believed that an uprising in Kashmir
04:31would force India to negotiate the status of the region.
04:36However, the operation did not go as planned.
04:39The Kashmir's did not rise in revolt as expected,
04:42and Indian forces quickly discovered the infiltrators,
04:45engaging them in heavy fighting all throughout August.
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06:27As conflict loomed,
06:31both India and Pakistan had built up their militaries ready for mobilization,
06:36each confident in their preparedness and capabilities.
06:40Pakistan's military, though smaller in overall numbers,
06:44was highly professional and well-trained,
06:46comprising approximately 260,000 active personnel.
06:50Additionally, the army itself was supplemented by over 250,000 paramilitary troops
06:57concentrated on the Kashmir region.
07:00The Pakistani military benefited from extensive training programs,
07:04with many officers trained in Western military academies.
07:08Their forces were equipped with modern American weaponry, tanks, and aircraft.
07:14Pakistan's armored units and air force were considered to be technologically superior,
07:19while their strategy was heavily influenced by the belief
07:22that a quick, decisive action in Kashmir
07:25could catch India off guard and compel them to negotiate.
07:30On the other hand, India's military was one of the largest in the world,
07:35with around 700,000 active personnel.
07:38After the Sino-Indian War 1962,
07:41the Indian military had restructured and improved their training programs,
07:45focusing on flexibility and mobility to counter potential threats on multiple fronts.
07:52India's equipment included older but reliable British and Soviet tanks,
07:57such as the Centurion and the T-55,
08:00and their air force operated Hawker Hunter and MiG-21 aircraft.
08:05While not as technologically advanced as Pakistan's American-supplied gear,
08:10India's equipment was robust and battle-tested.
08:12India had been on high alert since the Chinese invasion
08:17and had invested significantly in military readiness and infrastructure,
08:22making them better prepared for a prolonged conflict.
08:26In response to Operation Gibraltar,
08:29India launched a full-scale military response.
08:32Indian forces crossed the line of control on August 28th
08:36and engaged Pakistani troops in heavy fighting.
08:39The early stages of the war were marked by intense skirmishes
08:43and battles at key locations like Haji Pier.
08:47Indian forces, aiming to neutralize the infiltrators,
08:51had effectively advanced into Pakistani-administered territory.
08:55This phase saw fierce encounters all across Jammu and Kashmir,
09:00where both sides vied for strategic dominance.
09:03One of the early key battles was fought at Kargil during the Chum Offensive,
09:07where Indian troops managed to push back Pakistani infiltrators,
09:12securing the region.
09:13As the conflict escalated,
09:16both nations mobilized their full military capabilities,
09:19leading to widespread engagements.
09:22On September 1st, Pakistan launched Operation Grand Slam,
09:27a bold offensive aimed at capturing the vital Akhnoor Bridge in Jammu.
09:31This bridge was crucial,
09:33as it connected the Indian-controlled Kashmir Valley with the rest of India.
09:38Pakistan's strategy was to sever this link and cut off Indian supply lines,
09:43thereby crippling Indian operations in the region.
09:47Initially, Pakistan achieved success as they advanced rapidly toward their objective.
09:52However, the tide began to turn as Indian forces mounted a counter-offensive.
09:57India responded by opening a new front in the Punjab region,
10:02launching a massive attack toward the city of Lahore.
10:06This forced Pakistan to divert troops from Operation Grand Slam to defend its own territory,
10:12diluting their efforts in Jammu.
10:14The Indian advance toward Lahore saw heavy fighting,
10:18especially around the towns of Fatpur and Dograi,
10:21where Indian forces managed to gain ground despite stiff resistance.
10:25Conditions faced by infantry on both sides were grueling.
10:31Soldiers endured extreme weather conditions,
10:34from the scorching plains of Rajasthan
10:36to the frigid mountains that dominated Jammu and Kashmir.
10:40Continuous combat added to the difficulties,
10:43with both armies engaging in fierce close-quarters battles.
10:48Both India and Pakistan deployed significant artillery units
10:51to bombard enemy positions and disrupt supply lines.
10:55The widespread use of artillery fire led to high casualties
10:59and created a constant threat for infantry
11:02as they attempted to advance on enemy positions.
11:06To break the slog of massed infantry attacks,
11:09both sides employed extensive use of tanks.
11:13From September 8th to the 10th,
11:15Pakistani and Indian armored forces
11:18faced off near the village of Asal-Uttar in Punjab.
11:22Pakistani forces,
11:23fielding their advanced M-48 patents,
11:26initially made significant gains.
11:28However, Indian forces,
11:30using strategically defensive positions
11:33alongside their own Centurion and Sherman tanks,
11:36managed to halt and eventually repulse
11:38the Pakistani advance.
11:40On September 11th,
11:4228 Pakistani tanks were destroyed,
11:44with the loss of only one Indian tank at Thalora.
11:48This battle was a turning point,
11:50resulting in heavy losses for Pakistan
11:52and earning India a strategic victory.
11:56Three days later,
11:57one of the largest tank battles of the war
11:59took place in the Sialkut sector.
12:02Pakistani forces aimed to capture the town of Chavinda,
12:06which was strategically important
12:07due to its railway connections.
12:10The battle saw intense fighting,
12:11with both sides deploying large numbers
12:14of infantry, tanks, and artillery.
12:16Indian forces initially made significant inroads,
12:19but fierce resistance from Pakistani troops,
12:22combined with effective use of artillery,
12:24stalled their advance.
12:27In the desert region of Rajasthan,
12:30Indian forces staunchly defended
12:32against continuous Pakistani offensives
12:35across the sector.
12:36These operations helped secure the desert front
12:39and prevented Pakistani forces
12:41from making significant inroads.
12:44The conflict also saw significant air battles,
12:47with both countries deploying
12:48their air forces extensively.
12:50The Indian and Pakistani air force
12:52engaged in numerous dogfights and bombing raids.
12:56India targeted key military installations
12:58and supply lines in Pakistan,
13:01while the Pakistanis aimed to disrupt
13:03Indian ground operations
13:04using their more modernized aircraft,
13:07which helped offset their inferior numbers.
13:12Naval operations, though limited,
13:14also played a role in the conflict.
13:16On September 7th, 1965,
13:19Pakistan launched Operation Dwarka,
13:21aiming to destroy Dwarka's radar station,
13:24lower Indian morale,
13:25and force the Indians to divert
13:27their naval and air assets.
13:29While Pakistan claimed partial success,
13:32Indian sources dispute this.
13:34The Indian Navy ramped up maritime defense,
13:37conducting patrols and sweeps in the Arabian Sea
13:40to protect ports and shipping
13:42from Pakistani threats.
13:44These operations,
13:45while not involving major naval battles,
13:48ensured the safety of India's coastline
13:50and merchant vessels,
13:52limiting Pakistan's naval impact.
13:55The primary theater of conflict
13:56was in the West,
13:58as the front in East Pakistan,
14:00what would later become Bangladesh,
14:01saw little military activity.
14:04Indian and Pakistani forces engaged in skirmishes
14:07all along the border,
14:09but the eastern command of the Indian army
14:11made no plans to invade East Pakistan.
14:14This was primarily due to East Pakistan's isolation
14:18and their growing discontent with Pakistani rule.
14:22As one Indian general stated,
14:23why kill the East Pakistanis
14:26who hate the West Pakistanis anyway?
14:28For India,
14:29it was enough to pressure Pakistan
14:31into diverting military resources
14:33to protect the East.
14:35As the conflict between India and Pakistan worsened,
14:38the international community
14:40became increasingly concerned
14:42about the potential for a larger regional war.
14:46The United States and the Soviet Union,
14:49despite being on opposite sides of the Cold War,
14:52both had vested interests
14:53in preventing the conflict
14:55from spiraling out of control.
14:57The US initially provided
14:58diplomatic backing to Pakistan,
15:01but as the war intensified,
15:02it became clear
15:03that a prolonged conflict
15:05would destabilize the region.
15:07The Soviets,
15:08while supportive of India's position,
15:10were equally concerned
15:11about maintaining regional stability
15:13and avoiding direct confrontation
15:16with the United States.
15:18Both superpowers thus found common ground
15:21in their desire to mediate an end
15:23to the hostilities.
15:25On September 6th,
15:26the UN Security Council
15:27passed Resolution 209,
15:29urging both countries
15:30to seize hostilities
15:32and withdraw their forces
15:33to pre-conflict positions.
15:36Despite this initial call,
15:37fighting continued,
15:38prompting further action from the UN.
15:41Subsequent resolutions,
15:42including Resolution 210
15:44and Resolution 211,
15:46reiterated the demand
15:47for a ceasefire
15:48and called for direct negotiations
15:50between India and Pakistan.
15:53Under intense international pressure
15:56and facing the exhaustion of resources,
15:59both India and Pakistan
16:00eventually agreed to a ceasefire.
16:03On September 23rd, 1965,
16:06a UN-mandated ceasefire
16:08came into effect.
16:09The terms of the ceasefire
16:10required both nations
16:12to withdraw their forces
16:13to positions held
16:14before the outbreak of hostilities
16:16and to respect the line of control.
16:19The Tashkent Agreement,
16:21brokered by the Soviet Union
16:22in January 1966,
16:25saw both nations agreeing
16:26to restore economic
16:27and diplomatic relations
16:29and to withdraw troops
16:31from disputed areas.
16:33Despite the ceasefire
16:34and subsequent Tashkent Agreement,
16:37the war left a legacy
16:39of unresolved tensions,
16:41especially around the status
16:42of Kashmir,
16:44while the rivalry
16:45between India and Pakistan
16:46remained as severe
16:48as it was before the war began.
16:51Overall,
16:52the war left significant casualties
16:54and losses on both sides.
16:56India suffered approximately
16:583,000 casualties,
17:00while Pakistan faced
17:01around 3,800 casualties.
17:03Both nations also incurred
17:05substantial material losses,
17:07including hundreds of tanks
17:09and aircraft,
17:10alongside considerable economic costs
17:12due to the prolonged military engagement.
17:16With these sobering tallies,
17:18underlying disputes
17:19and nationalistic fervor persisted,
17:22ultimately setting the stage
17:23for future conflicts
17:25and continuing instability
17:27in the region.
17:28Remember to subscribe
17:31to Armchair History TV
17:32and watch our exclusive companion episode
17:35for this video.
17:36Also, look out for our 45-minute documentary,
17:40which we'll be releasing for free
17:41for everybody on A-H-TV
17:43at the end of this month.